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language transfer
Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and crosslinguistic influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language. It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a bilingual or multilingual individual, whether from first to second, second to first or many other relationships. It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.
==Positive and negative transfer==
When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called ''positive transfer'' — "correct" meaning in line with most native speakers' notions of acceptability. An example is the use of cognates. Note, however, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as ''negative transfer''. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis (the systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural differences and similarities), the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected. For example, in English a preposition is used before a day of the week: "I'm going to the beach ''on'' Friday." In Spanish, instead of a preposition the definite article is used: "Voy a la playa el viernes." Beginning Spanish students who are native English speakers may produce a transfer error and use a preposition when it is not necessary due to their reliance on English. According to Whitley, it is natural for students to make these errors based on how the English words are used. From a more general standpoint, Brown mentions “all new learning involves transfer based on previous learning.".〔Bransford , J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). ''How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school''. (Expanded ed., (PDF )). Washington D.C.: National Academy Press, ISBN 0309070368.〕 This could also explain why initial learning of L1 will impact the learning of L2.
The results of positive transfer go largely unnoticed, and thus are less often discussed. Nonetheless, such results can have a large effect. Generally speaking, the more similar the two languages are, and the more the learner is aware of the relation between them, the more positive transfer will occur. For example, an Anglophone learner of German may correctly guess an item of German vocabulary from its English counterpart, but word order and collocation are likelier to differ, as will connotations. Such an approach has the disadvantage of making the learner more subject to the influence of "false friends".
In addition to positive (viz., non-negative) transfer resulting in correct language production and negative transfer resulting in errors, there is some evidence that transfer from the first language can result in a kind of technical, or analytical, advantage over native (monolingual) speakers of a language. For example, second-language speakers of English whose first language is Korean have been found to be more accurate with perception of unreleased stops in English than native English speakers who are functionally monolingual, due to the different status of unreleased stops in Korean vis-a-vis English. This "native-language transfer benefit" appears to depend on an alignment of properties in the first and second languages that favors the linguistic biases of the first language.
抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』
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